Author: PubEd™️

Newtonian Influence into the Modern Era
by Academic Tutors 101 (L.F., 2009. Revised 2017)

The Legacy behind the Man: Sir Isaac Newton
One of the most infamous scientists in all of human history is Sir Isaac Newton. Newton was born in the Julian year of 1642 on the 25th of December, a date that is equivalent to January 4, 1643 on the Gregorian calendar. [1]

“Isaac Newton was born prematurely to a widowed mother, in Woolsthorpe Manor in Lincolnshire, England.[2]

Early in his life, Newton’s mother would remarry and leave him to live with his Grandmother at Woolsthorpe. He would receive an education locally and eventually attend as school at Gratham, where he resided with a local apothecary.[3]

In 1661, he began his attendance at Trinity College in Cambridge, England. There Dr. Isaac Barrow would come to be an important influence as his mentor, professor and friend.
His genius soon became obvious to many and is regarded in his uncle’s declaration, that it would be wrong “to bury so extraordinary a talent in rustic business.”[3]

In 1661, Isaac Newton left Lincolnshire to continue his studies at Cambridge. However, in 1665 and 1666, he was forced to return to Woolsthorpe to escape the outbreaks of bubonic plague. It was at Woolsthorpe Manor that Isaac Newton formulated three great discoveries; the Principle of Differential Calculus, the Composition of White Light and the Law of Gravitation.

He later observed, “In the two plague years, I was in the prime of my age for invention and minded mathematics and philosophy -more than at any time since.”[3]

Newton lived during a Historically significant epoch where Mathematics, Science, Philosophy, and the Arts synergistically enriched all of Europe leading to the culmination and convergence of major discoveries and inventions; This was the 17th century.

Newton’s life also spanned the later part of the periods known as the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution; the Early Modern Period.[4]

Newton’s work marked the advent of early Modernism that would shape the future of Scientific advancement far into the future. Newton retrospectively influenced developments of Western Civilization into the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th, the 19th century and ultimately the Modern era. This is why today, Sir Isaac Newton is still highly regarded as one of the most ingenious men to have ever lived.

A true “Renaissance” man- a polymath, Newton took up studies as an “English Physicist, Mathematician, Astronomer, Natural Philosopher, Alchemist (an early Chemist) and a Theologian.”[1]
Newton contributed greatly to the fields of Mathematics, Physics, (Alchemy) Chemistry, Optics, Mechanics and Gravitation.

“As a natural Philosopher, Newton was concerned with the state of the natural world and the physical universe.”[5] Philosophical interests in these areas came to influence much of his work. In keeping with the ideas of the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution, the philosophical approach to the natural world came concurrent to precursor trends in learning called, Humanism and Scholasticism. Although leading Humanists would come to reject the ideals of Scholasticism, Newton seemed to embraced both approaches to learning. It seems that his work was influenced by those who came before him- asking similar questions- including Aristotle (Aristotelianism) and Plato (Neoplatonism). In heritage, Newtonianism would come to be the term for the tradition of Newtons contribution’s to Natural Philosophy and Science.

Although a true magnate, Newton is reputed in historic accounts as a humble man of good nature – a spiritual man, and as a leading member of English Society and the greater Scientific community. In the end of his life, at the age of 85 years old, Newton said,
“I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself, I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore and diverting myself in now and then, finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell then ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.[3]

Newton’s Study of Optics

Newton’s contribution to advancements in Optics began with a natural curiosity about the light emitted by celestial objects, particularly the Sun. In later works he would keep focus on the heavens but shift his exploration to the forces that held the moon in place. It is clear that he also took influence in optics based upon his reading of Johannes Kepler’s geometric approach to optics and Theory of Lenses as part of his mathematical studies at Cambridge. To note – Kepler was a contemporary of the 17th century Scientific Revolution and natural philosopher, influenced by Aristotelianism (Aristotle- the first know Tutor!); The result of this influence resonated within discoveries that would overrule past philosophical approaches to similar matters of investigation, in some right.
Newton studied the optics {or as he wrote “opticks”} of visible light and its functional “relativity” to objects or matter; This led into his study of magnetism and gravity which facilitated and furthered later studies on electromagnetism and theoretical physics. (This would influence Einstein! Noble Archives: The Dual Nature of Light)

The exploration of light, by Newton, would reveal properties of magnification that suggested light did not travel the trajectory of a straight line. Leaving the question – what is the course that light travels?

To answer this question he began experiments with casting shadows through glasses filled with water and measuring light that shown through openings in glass plates. This process led into experiments with different physical objects like metal, stone, wood, ice, and their apparent relationship to light, i.e. Did the objects refract light or cast shadows? The “reaction” of these natural materials in casting shadows or conducting light would be measured and recorded according to categorical criteria such as luminosity, color, breadth and distance. The results of Newtons findings preliminarily included in Opticks: Or, A Treatise of the Reflections, Refraction’s, Inflections and Colours of Light. The Second Edition, with Additions (London: 1717)1717, in English, c. 24,028 words, The Third Book of Opticks. Part I Published in: Opticks: Or, A Treatise of the Reflections, Refraction’s, Inflections and Colours of Light, Second Edition(London: 1717) [6] concluded that rays of light bend. This came to be the basis of Newtons theory of Refraction – when the natural object comparison was made in regard to the mathematical concept of a hyperbolic plane or hyperbola. The figure of an hourglass is quite comparable to a hyperbola planar figure (see, Euclid’s Conic Sections). He found that the motion of light is equivalent in refraction to that of a hyperbola as a central figure for elliptical movement; This precluded in Isaac Newton’s letters entitled Mr. Isaac Newtons Answer to some Considerations upon his Doctrine of Light and Colors [7]

These notions evolved into the explanation for observable deformity of refraction as the mechanism for reflections in mirrors which would come to be utilized by Newton to create a more efficient telescope in 1669. See, The Newtonian telescope. Telescopes became the technological product of western civilization – being defined as an instrument in optics due to the detection of the refraction of light off of an object. Prior to this, “Johannes Kepler had developed a refracting telescope called the Keplerian Telescope as he borrowed from the previous telescopic discovery of Galileo Galilei.” [8]

Beyond this – Newton’s experiments with light as a force that bends and refracts determined its (anthropomorphically speaking) quantum nature which later revealed the physical components of refraction as particles of matter in addition to solid masses. See, Particle-Wave Duality. Eventually, all of this led to the discovery of the photon and a postulate about the boson particle! Bosons as a material particle came to be studied by Albert Einstein in his theories on particle physics; Discoveries followed in several subsequent divisions of physics and a theory of the existence of a Higgs Boson component, said to be the “holy grail” of science as we know it. Perhaps the following on this topic, is a good example of how  Newtonian influence has empirically spanned science into the modern era. As recent as 2005, physicists along with a host of other scientists from around the globe began experiments at CERN Laboratories [9] already yieldeding promising results in the way of proving that there exists a quantum model/structure/form or as I like to call it “entity”  that gives weight to atomic particles, called a Z Boson. [10] Update: 2017 CERN: Higgs Particle

Newtons study of Pure Optics (See, Pure Mathematics) came to influence Applied Optics and other fields such as electrical engineering, Ophthalmology and even studies in psychology. [11]

Newtonian Influence on Mathematics

As I had mentioned in the section on optics, Newton had come to be influenced by the work of Johannes Kepler – possibly while he was studying Kepler’s geometric approach to optics and(or) theory of lenses as part of his mathematical studies at Cambridge. Kepler’s focus on the movements of celestial bodies as orbiting in elliptical motion led him to his postulation that planets orbit around the sun – heliocentricity. Kepler came to this idea by his recount with what had been studied by another astronomer prior to his time, Nicolaus Copernicus.
“This ultimately led to his work, the Laws of Planetary Motion which set in place the foundational premise of consideration for Newton in what would inspire his own discoveries about the laws of motion and theory of Universal Gravitation. This was also accomplished in part to the application of Euclidean geometry.” [8]

Isaac Newton’s 1687 scientific treatise, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy or in latin, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, describes Newtonian Mechanics or as it is better known, Classical Mechanics, as the functions of application of physical properties to mathematical expressions for motion (i.e. velocity) that became Newton’s laws of motion. The Law’s of Motion were governed by three principle laws or scientific laws and there correlative properties. For example, a general property would be the Law of Approximations – as part of the Law’s of Motion. In relationship, “Several mathematical theorems and the contexts of those theorems as axioms and postulates, are governed and referred to by certain laws or rules because they provide logical foundations to empirical truths or empirical laws.” [12]

Newton’s Method of fluxions are based on differential calculus – and they are very similar to a mathematical study of functional relationships that would come to be defined by Albert Einstein’s Theory of Relativity (see below). Newton published his method of fluxions in The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (latin, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, a german mathematician who had been in communication with Newton about these methods came to publish a paper on infinitesimals (infinite being a characteristic property of Newtons law’s of motion) called, the Calculus. This led to a historic dispute in which the outcome credits both men for the development of infinitesimal calculus. “In Isaac Newton’s universe there were three dimensions: length, breadth and width. These three dimensions could not be interpreted by elementary two dimensional Geometry, so Newton created calculus. [13] See, History of Mathematics – Central Controversies: Created or Discovered?

Newton also studied René DesCartes’ (the French Mathematician and Philosopher who coined the initially derogatory term, “imaginary numbers”) Lé Géométrie. By my own recount of the timeline here – DesCartes’ work had probably just been published in the universally scholastic language, Latin, whereby prior to this time, the paper remained in french. Note- Newton also wrote papers in Latin. At one point Newton actually “expressed his regret that he had not applied himself to geometry before proceeding to algebraic analysis.” [14] Despite the fact that he applied himself enough so that Calculus is based upon both Geometry and Algebra – which is why it is studied in sequence prior to studying Calculus.

Newtonian Mechanics & Gravitation Theory

Newtons Law’s of Motion were later built upon by Albert Einstein’s Theory of Relativity. The differences of Einsteinian versus Newtonian theory were developed in accordance with the eventually better understood properties of light. Newton believed that light was instantaneous in nature however, this was not true. As Newton used the term “duration” as a variable in describing the constant nature of matter in the physical universe and “light” as the source that reflected in particle mechanics (pun intended) including in relationship to gravitation (observed as a force that pushed and pulled objects into place) it appeared as a result thorough his experimentation- that light was in fact constant. Later on in mathematical application, light was proven to not be instantaneous but to move at a fast duration or rate. The speed of light constant is represented by c in E= Mc^2. Einstein did consider the similar aspects of Newtonian laws in so much as length, breadth and width as properties of universal mechanics however he collectively called these properties, “space” as interdependent to “time” as a whole of dimensions that were relative to one another and responsible for variabilities within a set of properties and behaviors. Rather then viewing time as a unit for measurement as Newton did, Einstein viewed it as a collective variable to other three-dimensional elements of space, governed by Velocity.  [13] See, Planck Time and Max Planck; Planck Constants.

Newton’s Gravity

Newton’s first Law of Motion is based on the establishment of the principle of inertia. Inertia applied to the state of force and motion acting on matter with respect to position manifests as velocity to mass relationships, qualifiable in equation form. Force is describe by a form of energy that may be described by the Second Law of Motion or the Law of Heat Conduction, or even the General Law of Gravitation. The law of Inertia is an empirical premise for the study of classical physics. [15] This influenced later advancements for Western Civilization in, for instance, that the concept of inertia as relevant to the studies and training of astronauts at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Newton’s Third Law of Motion stipulates that “For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction force.” [16] See the definitions of Magnitude and Direction; Vectors and Scalars.

Newtons Law of Heat Conduction also spurred several important developments including The theory of Relativistic Heat Conduction (RHC) which also pertains to the ideas of relativity as set forth by Einstein. (The theory of Relativistic Heat Conduction (RHC) having to do with the process of conductivity as “catalyzed” by heat or thermal energy.) The concept of diffusion is aggregated to Fick’s laws of diffusion which is analogous to the Law of Heat Conduction and defines a mechanism of synthesis and reaction founded by empirical processes.

Quantum Mechanics and Gravitation

Quantum Physics has adapted Newton’s Law’s of Motion and applied it to studies of the natural world in a concrete and absolute procedure that governs the modality of further exploration in this field of science. Even in consideration that that of Newtonian theory on light as it is understood in the Law’s of Motion -as an immovable constant source or instantaneous force- would be proven false in later scientific and mathematical applications- his work in proving the Principles of Gravitation remained accurate. Newton’s General Law of Gravitation explained the forces between objects as Gravitation (a sort of universal glue) and further that the force of Gravity is variable upon the dimensions of mass which included length, breadth and width (Newton) versus the division of space between each object, then squared (Einstein). The equation for the General Law of Gravitation (figure 1) had been revised in Einstein’s field equations which helped to develop more precise gravitational measurements. Note, Gravity was visually mapped for the first time in 2016.* See, Publications on Gravity by CalTech.

The exploration of material states and relativity to the force of gravitation, as well as other properties, opened doors for the study of micro-particles or very basic atomic and sub-atomic structures. Similarly, the behavior of subatomic structures under the influence of force and as vectors in space have continued to be studied by CERN Laboratories. However, CERN Laboratories has not conducted the only major research that has uncovered new truths about the functional aspects of quantum mechanics! A Physicist named Nicolas Gisin, one of two Swiss Physicists has very recently, within the past several months (2005) conducted an experiment with photons. In quantum mechanics, the two physicists who conducted the experiments including Gisin, observed a reaction between split photons that were sent 11 miles in opposing directions in “conduction” along fiber optic cables. Upon interaction and intentioned manipulation of one photon arriving in one directional position, the other, remaining a distance apart – changed instantaneously. You can see how some of what we know about Classical Mechanics “crumbles” at the Quantum level. The photons changed “state” alludes to evidence in support of quantum entanglement theories (Einstein). During this experiment, extreme rates of reaction were observed, the scale of which had to be measured in Planck time (~ 10-43 seconds). Relativity, in theory, tells us that it is not possible for this reaction to occur but the exception is where the absence of a communicative signal exists upon the incidence of reactive photons.” [18] Here in the above, you can see one of the most outstanding examples of how far reaching the affects of Newtonian influence have into the modern era.

FIGURE 1: General law of gravitation

The UNIT of measure employed by the initial methods of Sir Isaac Newton’s classical mechanics and used to measure gravitation and force therein is called a Newton, symbolized as N.
Newtonianism, as the coined term for Newtons theoretical influences, philosophies and methods, Newtonian Mechanics, Newtonian fluids, the newton (or N) as a unit of force ALL warranted new scientific units of measurement (i.e. the kilonewton) which are even applied in the field of Architecture.

Newtons practice as an Alchemist and Chemist

As Newton used colors to describe his earlier experiments with light, matter and optics, in more modern times, we look at similar characteristics of matter in the study of Chemistry!

Newton was an alchemist and a very spiritual man. I think that others have precluded, as do I, that this fact is centrally important and reflective in of all of his work in that his belief was in the existence of a more divine sense of order. Those beliefs ultimately led him to what he personally considered some of his most significant work. (See below)

Alchemy stems from the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia, India, Japan, Korea, China, Greece and Rome. [19]
The origins of alchemy had been so widespread during Newton’s time and its universally appealing presence existed beyond the boundaries of culture and time eventually leaning to intrinsic understanding and organizational discoveries of material chemistry. Alchemy refers to the investigation of the natural world from the perspectives and foundational premises of chemistry, physics, medicine, astrology, semiotics, mysticism, spiritualism and art as all parts of one greater force. [19]

In his approach of alchemy, Newton remained religious. Even so, the practice of Alchemy is not viewed by the church as orthodox and at one point in time during the Inquisition, those who practiced Alchemy would be considered heretics resulting in their being tortured and often martyred. This is why, around the same time, a famous astrologer and astronomer, healer and alchemist, Nostradamus encoded his quatrains of his Les Propheties or in english translation, The Prophecies.

In 1690, Newton began studying theological prophecies and “wrote in the form of a letter to Locke, a Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of the (Christian) Scriptures regarding two passages on the trinity, and he left in Manuscripts, Observations on the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse.” [1] It is said that Newton spent a considerable amount of time exploring biblical texts in the hopes of discovering a codex for hidden messages that he adamantly believed to be encoded in the bible. This work would be appreciated and undertaken by other scientists, scholars and alchemists in times to come. Overall, his work proved concrete and formidable but it is refreshing to find that his thoughts expanded a theoretical box and pushed the boundaries of what was accepted and understood- perhaps a secret component to his utter brilliance.

References
[1]
“Isaac Newton”

[2] “Lycos, Inc. ”Isaac Newton: Woolsthorpe Manor””
April 2008. 4 May 2009

[3]Huygens, Christiaan. Great Books of the Western World, vol. 34 Newton, Huygens. Chicago, London, Toronto, Geneva:Encyclopedia Britanica, Inc. 1952: ix-x.

[4]“British History: Scientific Revolution” “Scientific Revolution.” Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World. The Gale Group, Inc, 2004. Answers.com 24 Jun. 2009.
“Scientific Revolution.” A Dictionary of British History. Oxford University Press, 2001, 2004. Answers.com 24 Jun. 2009.

[5]“Natural philosophy”

[6]Opticks: Or, A Treatise of the Reflections, Refraction’s, Inflections and Colours of Light. The Second Edition, with Additions (London: 1717)1717, in English, c. 24,028 words, The Third Book of Opticks. Part I
Published in: Opticks: Or, A Treatise of the Reflections, Refraction’s, Inflections and Colours of Light,
Second Edition(London: 1717)

[7] ”Mr. Isaac Newtons Answer to some Considerations upon his Doctrine of Light and Colors”
printed in Numb. 80. of these Tracts 18 November 1672, English, c. 7,955 words, 20 pp. Published in: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society No. 88, pp. 5084-5103.)

[8]“Johannes Kepler”

[11]“Optics”

[12]“Physical law; Laws as Approximations”

[13] Webb Jr., John Charles ”Thought Faster then Light”
1997-2008. May 2009.
[14]D.R. Wilkins(dwilkins@maths.tcd.ie), School of Mathematics: Trinity College, Dublin “A Short Account of the History of Mathematics” (4th edition, 1908) by W. W. Rouse Ball.
May 2009.

[15] “Classical Physics”

23 June 2009. 4 May 2009.
[16] Henderson, Tom “The Physics Classroom Tutorial” 1996-2007. May 2009.
17] Ornes, Stephan “Top 100 Stories of 2008 #43: Next-Level Quantum Spookiness” Discover: Science, Technology, and The Future: Physics & Math; Light 14 December 2008. January 2009.
[18] Jovanovic, Radoslav B.Sc (Electrical Engineering) High School for Electrical Engineering, Lajkovac, Yugoslavia. “Golden Section: Fibonacci Numbers and the Pascal Triangle; Planck Constant and Number Pi” 2001-2007. November 2007. May 2009.
[19]“Alchemy”

Resources
Main Source: Newton, Sir Isaac. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, No.80 (19 Feb. 1671/2), pp. 3075-3087. A Letter of Mr. Isaac Newton … containing his New Theory about Light and Colors
[9](http://public.web.cern.ch/public/)
[10]

Publications
Newtons publications in accordance with the following source:
“Sir Isaac Newton” Alfred Rupert Hall, Microsoft® Encarta®. 1998 Microsoft Corporation. Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences “Isaac Newtons Life”, are as follows:
• An edition of Geographia generalis by the German geographer Varenius in 1672
• His own letters on optics appeared in print from 1672 to 1676.
• Principia (published in Latin in 1687; revised in 1713 and 1726; and translated into English in 1729).
• Opticks in 1704; a revised edition in Latin appeared in 1706.
• The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (1728)
• The System of the World (1728)
• Book III of the Principia, and Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St John (1733).

Coordinate Geometry vs. Non-Euclidean Geometry

Coordinate Geometry:

During the time that Descartes (1596-1650) and Fermat (1601-1665) were developing their Mathematical Theories there were many Political and Cultural events occurring in Europe and the Americas. A great portion of Descartes life was lived out during the 17th Century AD (1601-1700) as well as Fermat’s, who was born at the turn of the century.

A movement referred to as the Baroque period in Europe began to dominate the cultural byproducts of Artistic endeavors. Partial to the movement were the wealthy class known as aristocrats that enjoyed the opulence and extravagance of Baroque values. The Baroque style and value not only could be found in Western painting but in the dramatic Arts, Literature, Philosophy, Sculpture, Clothing, Furniture, Architecture and Music as well. Patterns were reflected in Baroque styling.

In 1661, Louis XIV (1638 – 1715) assumed the throne of the French Monarchy as King of France, even though he had ascended the thrown at the age of 4. He was culturally known as an egocentric King, arrogantly relating himself to the likenesses of mythological gods. Under his political rule, Feudalism was disregarded and central government established. France was a power force amongst other European Countries at the time.

The Franco-Dutch War, and the War of the Spanish Secession found France at the forefront.

The Scientific Revolution was spurring much scientific investigation- discovery and/or invention- throughout the Western world. At first this predominantly influenced European Cultures prior to spreading to the Americas. It encompasses that of great cultural advancement as science had become an enriching, empowering and notable force. Each progression marked a step toward modern science as we know it. Galileo Galilei left his mark on culture during this time, with his accomplishments in Astronomy and the physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, and philosopher Sir Isaac lived during this time.

In 1642-1649 a Civil War breaks out in England.

In the Americas, the pilgrims arrive on the Mayflower ship, at Plymouth Rock in 1620. Soon after many English settlers began to colonize the America. In 1622, the Jamestown Massacre was marked by eastern native Americans killing hundreds of English that lived in the colony of Jamestown. A great cultural achievement in the Americas during the 17th century was the founding Harvard University.

Non-Euclidean Geometry:

During the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries there were many developments that played a role in the “Scientific Revolution.”

Riemann – German 1826-1866

Germany as a Holy Roman Empire

Immigration by Germans to the United States of America occurred during this time period and the Scientific Revolution was continued in the United States during this time by people such as Thomas Jefferson.

Industrial Revolution

1866 Austro-Prussian War: Prussia overcomes leader Otto Van Bismark

Lobachevsky – Russian 1792-1856

Russia in the 1800’s was under the rule of a Czar (similar to a King). Post social and political Revolution was a time when the Russian people remained oppressed which lead to civil war and eventually influenced the future development of the Soviet Union and communist control.

Workers guilds against post-industrial revolutions factory building

Bolyai – Hungarian 1802-1860

Hungary in the 19th century saw social changes in population class status’ and the nationality of hungarian nationals evolving with the population expansion that peaked in the 1800’s. The Upper class “Magnates” held positions of great power and influence over social political movement. They did not like the idea of the modernization because of its tie to population growth in the more diverse and lower class systems. The Industrial Revolution and modernization caused the hungarian magnates to reach out to Vienna, the Austrian capital for an alliance in bringing about post-modernization social and political structuring dynamics.

Sample Article Review of Scientific Literature for Student Contributors to our Blog: Thoughts on Newton Blvd

Assignments for College Preparatory Science Students
by Academic Tutors 101

Subject: Marine Biology: Morphological Change in Model Organisms (Coral)

Citation: Todd, P.A. et al. An aquarium experiment for identifying the physical factors inducing morphological change in two massive scleractinian corals. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 299 (2004): 97-113.

Source: This article was obtained through the Science Direct database at the www.esc.edu/library. (Note: Use “Export Citation” with the “ASCII” option to obtain the URL, then add “http://library.esc.edu/login?url=” in front of the “http” address. This will give you a stable link to the article.)

Note: You must supply the full and correct citation and whenever possible, a copy of a hotlink to the article itself. Your readers and students will want to read the actual article along with your review.

Summation: Prior research has shown that some species of coral are phenotypically plastic, but no controlled experiments had yet been done in a laboratory setting to try to determine the role of different environmental factors in facilitating morphological change. Researchers collected fragments of coral from different species of coral and grew them in different aquaria designed to represent varied light intensity, sedimentation rates and water current strengths. The corals were analyzed for morphological changes after 4 months of controlled growing experiments. They concluded that the most consistent morphological change seemed to be in response to light intensity.

Original source: Scientists from Scotland, Singapore, and Japan carried out this research at the Raffles Marina Research Station off the coast of Singapore.

What was studied: Fragments of different coral species were sampled during controlled laboratory experiments designed to distinguish phenotypic changes due to one or several environmental factors. Since the fragments were from the same coral colony, they were genetic clones of each other and therefore had the same genotype. Change in response to an environmental factor could then be known to be due to a change in phenotype. This is the coral equivalent of twin studies in Biology and psychology.

How the study was conducted: The control aspect in this study was attempted by leaving clonal fragments under natural conditions so as to have a comparison of any natural change in morphology over time. Many of these fragments were lost at sea and this highlights a difficult problem that often occurs in Marine Biology field studies!

What was concluded: They concluded that the most consistent change in morphology was the result of light intensity.

New questions: Corals seem to be very affected by environmental stresses. The paper mentions concerns about increased sedimentation and about climate change caused by global warming effects. It would be interesting to include water temperature as an environmental feature studied in the aquaria.

My opinion: After 4 months, the aquarium pump broke down and the study was prematurely ended. It is interesting to see that as long as a study is well-designed, something positive can be learned from it even when it doesn’t go as planned. In this case, the scientists learned more about the practical aspects of running the study, but also arrived at the conclusion to focus on light as a prime mover of phenotypic response.

This paper also highlights how little is known about coral biology, the roles, triggers, and biology of phenotypic plasticity in coral. There is also not much known yet about the ecology of phenotypic plasticity. This paper mentions that corals that are plastic are thought to be generalists. However, the cost and benefits of this trait are not yet clear in terms of evolutionary success and role in the community.

Glossary
*Be sure to use the college resources when building your glossary.

Genotype: Genotype refers to the genetic make-up of individuals and organisms. See Genetics.
This is a very important word in this article. Because the coral fragments were genotypically the same, the researchers were able to reason that any differences they saw in the individuals were a phenotypic adaptation to the environmental conditions.

Phenotypically plastic: Plastic means adaptable or malleable. See the Merriam-Webster dictionary. This concept is very important for understanding this study. With the same genotype, organisms showed different phenotypes under different environmental conditions. A phenotype refers to the physical result of a certain genotype. See Genetics.

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